The early big settlements that emerged from the Yellow River basin were considered to play a vital role in early society. At the same time, ancient cultures outside the Central Plain were thought to have had a modest impact, sparking a lasting debate because they lacked corresponding genetic evidence. The discovery of Shimao city (ca. 2,300–1,800 BCE), a premier state-level Neolithic fortified settlement in Shaanxi, China, played an important role in helping us understand the emergence of socially stratified urban societies. However, key questions remain regarding how ancestry and kinship shaped the hierarchy of this class-based society characterized by human sacrifice. The origins of the founding populations of Shimao and other Loess Plateau settlements, and their interactions within the broader ancestral landscape, remain to be determined. By sequencing 144 ancient genomes from Shimao city and its satellites, we present pedigrees among tomb owners spanning up to four generations. These findings reveal a predominantly patrilineal descent structure across Shimao communities and sex-specific sacrificial rituals. We also characterize the population history, revealing that Shimao culture-related populations originated mostly from a Yangshao culture-related population present at least one thousand years earlier in the local region, and the lasting inflow of Yumin-related population from Inner Mongolia did not interrupt regional genetic continuity. Which in line with the long-term influence of the steppe-related pastoralist, evidenced by continuous stone tool traditions and increasing incidence of herding animals. Broader genetic influence from southern mainland ancestry over Shimao culture-related populations supports evidence of rice farming expanding further north than previously expected. Taken together, these results uncover fine details of the regional peopling and social structure of early state establishment.

First Author: Zehui Chen

Keywords:
Stone urban city
ancient DNA
Shimao culture
kinship practice